Human freedom and the ten commandments Essay

When Jesus was asked, â€Å"What must I do to acquire endless life? â€Å", he answered: â€Å"You know the Commandments, keep these and you will live. † It has been stated, that the Ten Commandments are not straightforward principles commanded by God, but instead, this arrangement of rules is considered as a blessing provided to men with the end goal for them to carry on with the existence that God has guaranteed. In spite of the fact that the word â€Å"commandment†, without anyone else, imports something required and mandatory, it must be comprehended that God has conceded every single one of his kin opportunity and autonomy to pick how the person in question will act, and henceforth, human opportunity is a significant theme to be talked about nearby the Ten Commandments. It will be seen, that the sort of life that men live is basically an impression of how he utilizes the opportunity that he has been talented with. An individual can either carry on with an actual existence loaded with one spent as a decent adherent of God. Albeit some would state that it is an issue of destiny, fate, or possibly karma, in all actuality, an individual carries on with a real existence dependent on his own decisions and choices. As have been expressed, men have been skilled with opportunity, and it is up to him how he will use this blessing. Each individual has various types of requirements and needs that must be managed in regular day to day existence. This is the place opportunity sets in. In permitting nonappearance of limitation, God allows each individual the chance to shape his life. It has been expressed this is one hazard that God decided to take. â€Å"God gambled much in making us people with the opportunity, presently, to release frightful atomic debacle or to cherish our colleagues over all limits. † (Grider, 1994). The opportunity every one has been honored with that empowers him to comprehend and welcome the existence that he has and all the magnificence that accompanies it. Then again, in the event that this opportunity is manhandled, at that point the outcomes that go with it, would likewise must be managed by the individual concerned. Being free involves a great deal of duty. It is accepted that God allowed each individual the endowment of opportunity, not for the sole explanation that he be unfathomable or boundless. Man is given opportunity for him to be answerable for all the things that he says, does or even considers. Sufficiently genuine, a few scholars accept that the things that happen to every individual can be followed to the activities and choices that he decides to take. A large portion of the occasions, it isn't up to the sky if a fortunate or unfortunate thing transpires individual. A greater amount of than not, everything that happens to an individual can be followed to the game-plan that he decided to take. The sacred texts that God trained to be drafted, generally, are negligible types of direction for men; however at long last, it is human opportunity which will in the end direct whether an individual will carry on with his life by these rules. The idea of human opportunity is all the more regularly talked about by referencing the tale of what befell Adam and Eve in the nursery of Eden. As has been appropriately expressed, â€Å"these inquiries with regards to the idea of human opportunity emerge particularly when we direct our concentration toward the topic of the cause of wrongdoing. Just consider how frequently the root of transgression has been attributed to this human opportunity of decision, suggesting this twofold intensity of man’s nature and of his creaturely presence: to sin or not to sin; a great part and an abhorrent piece of his tendency. † (Berkouwer, 1962). Sufficiently genuine, God could have prevented the snake from associating with Adam and Eve, however because of the opportunity that he presented the two, they had the decision regarding whether to take the apple that the snake offered them. At last at that point, it is this decision that they made which is the underlying driver of why they were ousted from the nursery of Eden. It would show up then that regardless of the Ten Commandments being set somewhere around God to be sent to his kin, the equivalent isn't exactly a lot of mandatory principles forced upon men. Or maybe, the Ten Commandments are considered as a guide with regards to how every individual should live in the event that he needs to encounter the sort of life that God guaranteed. This is a sort of life brimming with joy, harmony, magnificence and love. A person’s opportunity can prompt this if an individual, in picking ways to take, remembers what the Ten Commandments talk about. Eventually, it would rely on the individual on the off chance that he will carry on with the sort of life guaranteed by God since the time the days of yore, or on the off chance that he will utilize his opportunity to lead him to a sort of unspeakable and terrible sort of living. REFERENCE â€Å"The Ten Commandments†, <http://www. whitestonejournal. com/tencommandments> J. Kenneth Grider , â€Å"Human Freedom†, 1994, <http://www. bibleviews. com/humanfreedom. html> G. C. Berkouwer, â€Å"Human Freedom†, 1962, <http://www. the-roadway. com/freedom2_Berkouwer. html>

Speech of Introduction

The Speech of Introduction Name Class Time Introduction A. Recognize the Audience and Occasion: Good Morning outside students from abroad of Auburn University. I might want to invite every one of you to Auburn University first yearly Foreign Exchange Student class B. Enticement: Our speaker for now Is keen, devoted, and multi-skilled youngster. C. Proposals/Preview: It Is my pleasure to do the respect of Introducing every one of you to SQL.I will illuminate you about her contemplation on being an outside international student, and her allocate and enthusiasm for painting. Body (Establish Speaker's Credibility) A. Remote Exchange: 1) Sin Is a piece of the 1-2-1 program where she will have the option to get two degrees from every Troy University and Yuan Nan University In China. 2) Sin Is right now on her second year of school. 3) SQL appreciates being an International understudy, and her purposes behind why are to vaults America and experience the excessive American way of life. ) Sin additionally appreciates the venturing out to and from America (All 20 hours of it) 5) Although there are numerous airdrops of being an outside international student and English being her second language, she adores the experience and recommends you make parts and heaps of companions however in particular to try sincerely and concentrate hard. Progress: Now that I have inspected Sin's experiences on being a Foreign student from abroad, I will currently think about on her adoration for painting. B. 1) 2) Appalling SQL Is an exceptionally capable and devoted painter In secondary school, she was a significant part to the Art Club for a long time 3) Show for Painting when she was a senior. ) She adored artwork so much that she accomplished a Job as a Painting educator with the goal that she could dedicate her time and interests into showing kids how to paint. Decision A. Prompt: taking everything into account, since I have given you bits of knowledge on our speakers encounters and enth usiasm for painting B. Welcome Speaker/Topic: Please assist me with inviting Sin Sheen, who will offer her shrewdness on being a remote student from abroad, with a series of praise. Conveyance A. Eye to eye connection B. Signals C. Energetically assortment D. Time A. Recognize the Audience: Good Morning outside students from abroad of Troy University.B. Event: I might want to invite every one of you to Troy University first yearly Foreign Exchange Student workshop C. Allurement: Our speaker for now is brilliant, committed, and multi-capable D. Postulation: It is my pleasure to do the respect of acquainting every one of you with Sin Sheen. Her energy and enthusiasm for painting. 1) Sin is a piece of the 1-2-1 program where she will have the option to get two degrees from every Troy University and Yuan Nan University in China. 2) Sin appreciates being a remote international student as a result of the American way of life and the heading out to and from America.All 20 hours of it) 3) A lthough there are numerous hardships of being an outside international student and English being her second language, she cherishes the experience and proposes you make parts and heaps of companions yet in particular to try sincerely and concentrate hard. 1) Sin is a capable and devoted painter. 2) she was a significant individual from her school's Art Club for a long time 3) Her most considerable snapshot of being a painter was winning first prize in her schools Art Show. 4) She adored work of art so much that she once committed her time into showing more youthful children to paint.

Aime A Tempest and The Tempest - Free Essay Example

Aime Cesaire inspiration to write A Tempest was Shakespeares play called The Tempsest. Aime is well known from his reputable post-colonial poetry as well as essay and play writing. A Tempest is a new rendition of Shakespeares The Tempest with a similar cast of characters and flow of the plot. However, Aime Cesaire slightly transformed the characters into depicting Ariel and Caliban as oppressed natives and Prospero as the manipulative European power. The two slaves use different approaches on their master all with the hope of being free. Ariel comes in a friendly manner to negotiate for independence whereas Caliban is bitter and rude towards Prospero. From the play, the audience gets to see the authors anti-colonist ideas, from the colonized perspective by exploring the relationship between colonial subjects and the colonizer. The setting of the play is on some island in the Caribbean where Prospero lives. Caliban is designed as a black slave whereas Ariel is a mulatto slave and was treated better. Caliban is depicted as an oppressed native that is rebellious against colonization. His ultimate goal was to be liberated from the chains of his master; therefore, he was willing to do all that was within his power to attain this. Ariel is obedient and loyal to Prospero as he respects his word and obeys all the orders given to him without hesitation. He truly believes that someday he will be granted his freedom. The reason for his belief is perhaps the better treatment he receives. Ariel seems to be more outspoken of his feelings to his master. For instance, at one point Prospero asks him whether he is upset and Ariel pleads him to relieve him off too much labor. Prospero busted Listen, and listen well! Ive got a job to do, and I dont care how it gets done! (Cesaire and Miller15) And although he (Ariel) is shouted at, he still keeps reminding the colonizer of the promise to let him free. The author tries to portray Ariel is a character that clings to things told in the past even though they seem like lies. As the audience sees, there was no possible way that Prospero was going to emancipate any of his slaves without having their replacements. Ariel is optimistic that the excellent service he offers and submi ssiveness will make the master honor his promise. Meanwhile, Caliban slights Prospero every opportunity he gets. As the play starts the greeting that Caliban uses with his master is a Swahili which also means freedom. Prospero had forbidden the use of vernacular in his compound, and this leads him to complain. As we can see from this Caliban is daring and likes provoking the colonizer. When asked not to use his native language, Caliban attempts claiming birthrights to the island, which angers Prospero to the extent of wanting to whip him. Here it is notable that this slave does not care much about the kind of relationship he has with the colonizer. He openly shows that he does not like the living conditions of being someones property. During their argument, Caliban asks Prospero to be addressing him as X, a man without a name or better yet a man whose name has been stolen. Caliban is more talkative, less submissive and resistant. He tries to authorizing his freedom by speaking it. Throughout the play, the conversation between Caliban and Prospero is more compared to Ariel. It was through these conversations that Caliban realized that being freed from the master was not something that would happen peacefully. The work done by the salves was quite a lot, and Prospero could not manage to do it by himself. Moreover, this colonialist was authoritative and loved power as depicted by the author of the play. With this knowledge, Caliban began thinking of ways to eliminate the master to be free. Caliban boldly takes a stand-in opposing Prosperos orders. And despite Ariel trying to persuade him otherwise he still holds on wanting freedom immediately. The black slave explains to his co-worker that their master had become more demanding and intolerable. From the interaction between the two, it seems as though Ariel is genuinely a humble individual, who cannot do any harm which is contrary to Caliban. Another difference between the slaves is how Caliban strives to preserve his identity whereas Ariel does not care at all. Ariel reminds Caliban of the power their master had and Caliban replies, Better death than injustice and humiliation. (Cesaire and Miller24) This statement shows how determined Caliban is towards safeguarding his identity. He wants to remain primitive and ignorant. Ariel used to coat his speech when addressing the master, contrary to Caliban who showed his apparent hatred in his talks by using curses. According to Prospero, his servants owe him a debt of gratitude for introducing them to modernity. Maybe this was the reason as to why Ariel was patient and believed the master would at some point grant him freedom. He was content to serve the master until this debt is paid off. But when it comes to Caliban, he did not feel as though he owed Prospero anything. Therefore it is right to say that Ariel had something that kept him motivated to be submissive whereas Caliban did not. More insight is added to Calibans attitude and character after his encounter with Trinculo and Stephano. The black slave willingly subjugates himself to them and begs them to be his master. No one would have expected this, which shows Caliban to be incapable of autonomy. Under his new master (Stephano) Caliban condition worsens as he stopped being rebellious. Here he no longer sent curse as he used to when under Prospero and being more submissive seems to be making him more pathetic. Caliban thought maybe going to another master would be some freedom, but that was not the case. In the end, he resigned himself back to Prospero and promised to be more submissive than before. As for Ariel, he did find his freedom eventually, and his state ends up being better than it was as the scene began. With the different approaches used by the slaves, it appeared like Caliban was the one to earn his freedom first. Ariel was always down to earth and careful with the choice of words he used. Caliban even went as far as plotting to kill his master which he did not succeed and instead when released to Stephano he yearned to return to Prospero. Ariel negotiations and commitment convinced the master to fulfill his promise of granting him true liberty. The two slaves were different even on the tone they used while talking to Prospero and this too did matter in determining their fate.

Rhetorical Analysis Of Hester Prynne - 862 Words

In his work â€Å"On the Scarlet Letter,† D.H. Lawrence addresses the controversial character of Hester Prynne. He is just one of many critics who have analyzed Nathaniel Hawthorne’s fictional character, where some look to her as a hero and others blatantly shame her for her sin. Lawrence makes up the latter of this crowd, and is able to prove his case in a very meaningful manner. The critic believes that Hawthorne sugarcoats Hester’s image, and tries to make it look as if she is the victim of the tale. Disregarding this sympathy, he addresses the root cause of her sin rather than its consequences. As he writes, he uses a multitude of literary techniques to help convince readers of Hester’s seemingly evil character, using descriptive diction, a†¦show more content†¦He does this sarcastically and in a way that provokes a reaction out of the reader. Nonetheless, he goes on to mock the couple and point out how Hester had purposely ruined a once pure man in Dimmesdale. Instead of being depicted as the victim as Hawthorne does, Lawrence uses this line to point the woman out as a villain. Eager to assert his point, he further mentions that â€Å"When Hester Prynne seduced Arthur Dimmesdale it was the beginning of the end† (Lawrence). Insulting the woman, Lawrence continues to imply on how it was all Hester’s fault that everything fell apart. She had initiated the romance and from there nothing was ever the same. In this case, he states it figuratively by over exaggerating on how her actions would doom them all for the â€Å"end.† It is with this tone that the reader knows what judgements Lawrence holds for Hester, and on how the rest of his paper would play out. Biblical allusion is the final device used to attack Hester Prynne and her sin. Using these, Lawrence is able to illustrate his beliefs and connect Hester’s wrongdoings to other literary works. He first takes on the character of Pearl, remarking on how as an infant she was â€Å"to redeem the world† and on how â€Å"It will be a startling redemption the world will get from [this] American infant† (Lawrence). While this quote does attack Pearl, it also shames her mother. Being the living example of Hester’s sin, Pearl is compared to the holy being of JesusShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1359 Words   |  6 Pagescharacters Chillingworth, Dimmesdale, and Hester and how they change from the sin. In the beginning Chillingworth is painted as a man â€Å"well stricken in years, a pale, [and] thin† (6) man that slithers into the market place. After finding out that his wife, Prynne, has committed adultery he blames himself by saying he â€Å"betrayed [Hester’s] budding youth into false and unnatural relation with his decay† (78). By saying this, he is telling her that he married young Hester without acknowledging who she is asRead More New Historicism, Feminist Criticism and Deconstruction in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter3014 Words   |  13 Pagesis necessary. Critical perspectives at a glance Feminist Criticism, New Historicism and Deconstruction share at least one common ground: They are part of contemporary critical perspectives. The literary text serves as a basis for further analysis of which poststructuralist methods are then applied in order to arrive at an interpretation. The general assumption that the three different perspectives are related to poststructuralist criticism seems to conflict with our knowledge of historical

Types Of Homogening Sections - 998 Words

CE 1.11 I found out the peak volume in each of the homogenous sections using the data collected from the link volume survey. Then I referred to standard codes of transportation engineering and decided the standard capacity for each of the homogeneous section based on their hierarchy and worked out the volume-capacity ratio. Making use of my engineering disciplinary skills I interpreted that those sections which exceed unity in their volume-capacity ratio need improvement in its functioning. Furthermore, I estimated the growth rates and traffic projection to the horizon year of 2036 were made by using the Growth-Factor Method. CE 1.12 From the OD data analysis, I formulated an OD matrix and with the help of it, I prepared the Desire lines†¦show more content†¦So I researched the similar works of NATPAC, journals, standard codes and even searched on the internet. Thus I overcame the issue and successfully developed ideas for redesigning each of the selected four junctions. Then, the intersections were redesigned as per my ideas and suggestions. CE 1.15 Another issue that I encountered was with the preparation of all the related maps using GIS software. For dealing with this, I got some tutorial from the GIS team, and also I took some online lessons on GIS, and thus I drew some of the location maps for aiding me in the preparation of the report. Based on the existing traffic scenario and the evaluated future traffic on the base year network, I started preparing a transport development plan for the town, which was a difficulty to me initially. For the further progress in my work, I identified the major traffic problems of the town which directed me to the next step of deciding the hierarchical order of the road network through which the issues can be resolved. Thereby, the issue was resolved, and I proposed a ring and radial road network pattern for the town as the road development plan for the town along with other improvement proposals and this marked the accomplishment of the project within the stipulated time frame. CE 1.16 I calculated the cost and the duration of the project and monitored the progress of the work using the software Primavera Project Planner. As the leader of the team, it

ICT Professionals Identify and Ethical Challenges MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the ICT Professionals Identify and Ethical Challenges. Answer: Introduction The ethical dilemma is the issues that arise due to the problem involving right or wrong. The increasing global arena of the cyber space and use of Internet has lead to the fact that government cannot just regulate for achieving the global electronic environment according to their needs. The government has to apply the approach of lighter regulations for allowing the development of the Internet. The Internet regulations are mainly to decrease the Internet related criminal activities. Since, Internet has allowed people to get access to a wide array of information, the easy access also pose challenge for the security of personal information. The ethical dilemma in Internet regulations is to decide about how much regulations should b enforced for a safe electronic system without interfering with privacy of people. Ethical dilemmas in ICT have significantly affected the bossiness and the process of communication. ICT has also encouraged the illegal activities and cyber crimes. The ethical dilemma in regulating Internet is the main issue. The Internet related ethical dilemma requires following the rules and regulations. The ethical issues are associated with the type of content posted on Internet rather than feelings associated with expression (Dahl, 2007).. Australia also has some anti-spam agreements with a number of different nations. In order to control the problem of increasing spam, post related to offensive material, and different international agreements requires the Australian government to take the aggressive Internet regulatory measures. The policy of self-regulation has not effectively worked in the area of Internet. Internet regulations are meant to regulate the misuse of internet. The information revolution has transformed many personal aspects of the life of people. Therefore, information and communication technology (ICT) had also resulted aim good and bad consequences. It is important that communication and computer ethics should be associated with best Internet practice. The different ethical theories can be associated with the concept of internet regulations. The ethical theory of Consequentialism states that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility (Dahl, 2007). The rightness of any actions are solely dependent on the degree or its capacity to produce the good consequences. This theory has important place in computer ethics. The theory of Utilitarianism is also a consequentialist theory which states that best actions are those that are responsible for producing greatest amount of good (Dahl, 2007). It can also be considered as the moral theory associated with risk analysis and cost benefits. The Australian information and communication technology (ICT) professionals are focused on solving various Internet related ethical issues. Internet regulations in the country are important for fulfilling many external and internal ethical issues. The Internet regulations are also dependent on the social and cultural perspectives. This is the reason that many Western ethical theories like utilitarianism, Kantianism, or virtue ethics, are significantly applied in Internet regulations and computer networks (McDermid, 2008). Deontological theories are considered as the significant replacement of the consequentialism, which states that rightness of the actions is mainly dependent on consequences of the actions. However, the theories of utilitarian, deontological and virtue ethics are criticized, because various studies have stated that moral aspirations are absurd and such morality can be dangerous (Lichtenstein, 2011). The regulatory provision of Internet in Australia focuses on the strategies for managing the problem of racism of Internet. The self regulatory aspects associated with internet are no more useful and country requires more specific internet regulation policies and laws (McDermid, 2008). There are various ways of analyzing the ethical issues in ICT. The flow of the Internet regulations has to be based on the ethical guidelines influenced by various ethical principles. The main problem that the ICT professionals are facing in Internet regulations is to find satisfactory outcomes (Burmeister et al, 2014).. However, the ethical standards can be applied to the Internet regulations. According to the theory of Utilitarianism, the good has to be maximized. However, there are also criticisms of this theory because it lacks sufficient considerations and provisions of rights and justice (Burmeister et al, 2014).. The unprofessional personal behavior and unprofessional organizational cultures inc reases the chances of Internet crimes and misuse of Internet. Therefore, the organizational policies have to firmly implement the Internet regulations for dealing with various kinds of unprofessionalism. Regulating internet is very hard job in Australia because of the presence of the bipartisan policy that is used to implement wide access to Internet (Burmeister et al, 2014). The self regulatory culture of Internet can be effective in managing the ethical dilemmas aroused by internet regulations. Utilitarianism view can be applied to the Internet regulations in Australia, as it can help in providing the justifiable standards for internet regulation in the country. The ethical theory of Deontology states that moral actions of the people are regulated by the moral laws. The moral laws are required to be at the foundation of the Internet regulatory laws and international environment of the copyrights (McDermid, 2008). The Internet regulations for preventing the ethical dilemma should also be focused on the principles of freedom, Justice, equality and benevolence. The liberty of every individual should be acknowledged through the regulations and should also be provided with complete moral freedom (Quinn, 2014). The justice and equality states that equal rights should be applied for every individual and even the non-regulatory aspects of internet should be supported with moral and ethical evidences. The potential capacity of the Internet regulations should be used to solve the ethical problems related to security, privacy and crimes. The government regulations should also apply the approach of blocking and filtering (Lichtenstein, 2011). However, the filtering and blocking can interfere with the freedom of expression. The regulatory power can be used over the filtering technique with the help of the rating system. The internet regulations in Australia, can have agreements with the search engines to regulate the content they allow people to watch, post and express. According to the study of Quinn (2014) Deontological arguments in favor of freedom of expression, and of intellectual freedom in general, are based on claims that people are entitled to freely express their thoughts, and to receive the expressions made by others, quite independently of whether the effects of that speech are desirable or not. Conclusion The ethical issues have been increased in the information and computer technology. The ethical dilemma related to internet regulations is the restriction of freedom and the trust issues. The self regulatory approach is mainly associated with internet. However, this approach has not been sufficient to address the various ethical problems. The regulatory system for the internet requires the honest culture. There are many specific issues associated with the internet regulations. The first issue is the spam. The spam or the junk folder is meant for the unsolicited bulk mails, and it has been found that black market people are using the spam mails for selling drugs, , hacking personal information through bogus prizes and there is also the high rate of Nigerian money laundering frauds. However, the regulatory system for Internet requires applying the moral and ethical theories for receiving the explicit and implied consent of the users. However, the moral and ethical principles can signifi cantly influence the actions of the internet users. The theory of Utilitarianism states that moral and ethical actions are of two kinds, first that produce good results and he second that produce bad results. The good and bad results of the action are derived from the moral laws. Therefore, the Internet regulations in Australia are required to be derived from the moral theories and have to focus on regulating the used of internet in such a way that it do not interfere with the freedom of the users. Internet related transmission channels and exchange of information through internet should be derived from the ethical theories. References Burmeister, O., Al-Saggaf, Y., Schwartz, M., Johnson, L. (2014). Internet resources to help Australian ICT professionals identify and solve ethical challenges. ACIS. Dahl, S. (2007).Ethics in online marketing: a case-based analysis of ethical issues in internet marketing(Master's thesis). Lichtenstein, S. (2011). Ethical issues for internet use policy: balancing employer and employee perspectives.International journal of technology management,54(2/3), 288-303. McDermid, D. (2008).Ethics in ICT: an Australian perspective. Pearson Higher Education AU. Quinn, M. J. (2014).Ethics for the information age. Pearson.

Solar Energy Essays (1424 words) - Energy Conversion, Solar Energy

Solar Energy About 47 percent of the energy that the sun releases to the earth actually reaches the ground. About a third is reflected directly back into space by the atmosphere. The time in which solar energy is available, is also the time we least need it least - daytime. Because the sun's energy cannot be stored for use another time, we need to convert the suns energy into an energy that can be stored. One possible method of storing solar energy is by heating water that can be insulated. The water is heated by passing it through hollow panels. Black-coated steal plates are used because dark colors absorb heat more efficiently. However, this method only supplies enough energy for activities such as washing and bathing. The solar panels generate "low grade" heat, that is, they generate low temperatures for the amount of heat needed in a day. In order to generate "high grade" heat, intense enough to convert water into high-pressure steam which can then be used to turn electric generators there must be another method. The concentrated beams of sunlight are collected in a device called a solar furnace, which acts on the same principles as a large magnifying glass. The solar furnace takes the sunlight from a large area and by the use of lenses and mirrors can focus the light into a very small area. Very elaborate solar furnaces have machines that angle the mirrors and lenses to the sun all day. This system can provide sizable amounts of electricity and create extremely high temperatures of over 6000 degrees Fahrenheit. Solar energy generators are very clean, little waste is emitted from the generators into the environment. The use of coal, oil and gasoline is a constant drain, economically and environmentally. Will solar energy be the wave of the future? Could the worlds Tran 2 requirement of energy be fulfilled by the "powerhouse" of our galaxy - the sun? Automobiles in the future will probably run on solar energy, and houses will have solar heaters. Solar cells today are mostly made of silicon, one of the most common elements on Earth. The crystalline silicon solar cell was one of the first types to be developed and it is still the most common type in use today. They do not pollute the atmosphere and they leave behind no harmful waste products. Photovoltaic cells work effectively even in cloudy weather and unlike solar heaters, are more efficient at low temperatures. They do their job silently and there are no moving parts to wear out. It is no wonder that one marvels on how such a device would function. To understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to some basic atomic concepts. In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. Each electron carries one negative charge and each proton one positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. Every atom has the same number of electrons as there are protons, so, on the whole, it is electrically neutral. The electrons have discrete kinetic energy levels, which increase with the orbital radius. When atoms bond together to form a solid, the electron energy levels merge into bands. In electrical conductors, these bands are continuous but in insulators and semiconductors there is an "energy gap", in which no electron orbits can exist, between the inner valence band and outer conduction band [Book 1]. Valence electrons help to bind together the atoms in a solid by orbiting 2 adjacent nuclei, while conduction electrons, being less closely bound to the nuclei, are free to move in response to an applied voltage or electric field. The fewer conduction electrons there are, the higher the electrical resistively of the material. Tran 3 In semiconductors, the materials from which solar sells are made, the energy gap E.g. is fairly small. Because of this, electrons in the valence band can easily be made to jump to the conduction band by the injection of energy, either in the form of heat or light [Book 4]. This explains why the high resistively of semiconductors decreases as the temperature is raised or the material illuminated. The excitation of valence electrons to the conduction band is best accomplished when the semiconductor is in the crystalline state, i.e. when the atoms are arranged in a precise geometrical formation or "lattice." At room temperature and low illumination, pure or so-called "intrinsic" semiconductors have a high resistively. But the resistively can be greatly reduced by "doping," i.e. introducing a very small amount of